Toxicity of Nanotechnology

While nanotechnology certainly promises great opportunities on many fronts, it also begs for caution to be taken in its use. Methods which are currently in use to gauge toxicity of substances do not necessarily apply to nanomaterials, like measuring the mass of a toxin in a compound, for example. Because such a large part of nanotechnology is the way in which the materials can interact and build within our bodies could potentially be toxic to our cells and organs, although the material itself may not be toxic. An example of toxicity based on physical rather than chemical properties is the lethal interaction between asbestos fibers and human lungs. The long, slender fibers of the material are what can cause lung cancer, but ground into smaller, differently shaped pieces, the asbestos is not as toxic.
Within a specific area of nanomaterial production, such as extremely lightweight carbon-based nanotubes, there are millions of different tubes produced, and each could potentially have different properties, just like isotopes of elements can be harmful whereas another isotope is not. Obviously regulation and study of the industry will have to be extremely comprehensive and cautious, as little is known about this new branch of technology.

I thought that the comparison between asbestos fibers and nanotubes was very interesting. It seems strange that something which we hear so much about being horrible for you to breathe, even to the extent that removing it could be incredibly dangerous, is much more benign for our system if it is ground up, since it is the fiber that is the harmful part. It seems that things are mostly thought about as being chemically toxic, not physically toxic.

Reference: Natural Resources Defense Council, "Smaller is Weirder: Our Silver-Coated Future," OnEarth Magazine, Fall 2007.
http://www.nrdc.org/onearth/07fal/nano5.asp, Accessed November 28, 2007.

Anabolic Steroids in Teens

On the Office of National Drug Control Policy’s website on anabolic steroids they have some shocking statistics with regards to the use of anabolic steroids. It is reported that children as early as eighth grade have admitted to using steroids with 1.6% of those surveyed admitting to using the drugs. This figure goes up to 2.7% for twelfth graders which makes it appear that there is a fair amount of steroid use within high school. This was shocking to me and is not publicized much. It seems that the media is so focused on the high profile professional athletes and do not talk about high school athletes who are putting themselves at a large risk for injury. Anabolic steroids have a number of dangerous side effects including liver cancer, heart attacks, and higher cholesterol and can also stunt growth in teens (Drugs). These are not things to speak lightly about and are serious problems that teens are putting themselves unnecessarily at risk for. Another problem with anabolic steroids is that they are illegal, not only for sports but in 1991 it was made illegal to possess or sell anabolic steroids without a prescription (Drugs). This is another aspect that I don’t think get’s talked about enough. It should be enough of a deterrent that it is illegal to take anabolic steroids, but it is not, and it just goes to show how people are willing to do whatever it takes to get ahead.

Drug Facts. Office of National Drug Control Policy. 27 Nov. 2007 http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/drugfact/steroids/index.html#top

Could the New Breakthrough in Stem Cells Stifle Research?

In 2006, a Japanese scientist named Shinya Yamanaka developed a method for turning the skin cells of mice into stem cells [1]. It was an enormous breakthrough in the field of stem cell research, though it was unclear at the time whether or not the same procedure could be reproduced with human skin cells. In November of 2007, two teams of scientists (one led by Yamanaka and one led by James Thomson of the University of Wisconsin) caused human skin cells to be transformed into cells showing the properties of stem cells. [1]

Stem cells are enormously important in medical science because they show so much promise for treating a multitude of diseases. Illnesses such as Parkinson’s disease, Muscular Dystrophy, spinal cord illnesses and many, many more may be cured using stem cells. Stem cells come from a human embryo when it is in the blastocyte stage, meaning that it is a ball of about 50 to 150 cells floating in the fallopian tubes and uterus just after fertilization [1]. They are so useful because of their versatility; they may turn into any of the over 200 types of human cells. Stem cells transplanted into the heart will develop into whatever type of heart cells surround them (such as cardiac muscle), and the same will occur with any cell of the body. [1]

This development in stem cell is a huge step, but it is by no means a final step. A great deal of research still must be done one stem cell production before the disease treatment phase of research even begins. The “stem cells” produced from skin cells will likely have a great number of differences from the real stem cells that can only be harvested from embryos, and, because of the new development, funding for research into embryonic stem cells is even more difficult to come by [1]. Skin cells that are transformed into stem cells are dangerous to even use in medicine now because their production requires the disruption of skin cell DNA, often leading to mutations; most of the mice which had the procedure done developed cancer [1]. I can only hope that this new breakthrough will not be used as a political tool to completely stifle stem cell research. The White House is even claiming credit for the discovery because of their seven year ban on embryonic stem cell research [1]. Hopefully, the new development in stem cells will not stifle stem cell research.


Bibliography

[1] “Stem Cell Breakthrough Could Stifle Research” Livescience 27 Nov. 2007
<>.

Radiation detection an arduous task at ports

A rusty yellow truck triggered a radioactivity alert in Pier A in the Port of Long Beach. The truck was then directed to a secondary inspection station. This truck was originally suppose to carry window shutters from China. The truck was then asked to open the cargo so that further inspection of the shipment for radiation. The driver claims to have been setting off radiation alarms all across the port. Multiple trucks have been tested for radiation in the Long Beach Ports. By the time 2012 all cargo will be scanned and billions of dollars will be needed to do this. The possibility of nuclear weapons being shipped into the United States has been brought up with all the radiation that has been present in much of the investigation. On the other hand much of the cargo does put out gamma radiation.

No unknown terms

It is scary to believe there are so many types of trucks giving off radiation and we don’t have a real reason what is setting off the alarms. The thought of a terrorist attack is definitely a possibility. Also it is so easy to actually send something across the border because of the vast length. In some parts of Texas there are wooden posts to mark the border of the United States and Mexico. Also this article could also just be a way to scare Americans into believing that we need to spend money and that the government will do all they can to protect the nation.

Vartabedian, Ralph. Radiation detection an arduous task at ports. L.A. Times, Nov. 25, 2007.

Radon and your health

Back in 1994 three public health studies on the risk of radon to householders were published. These studies came from Sweden, Canada, and the United States. The Swedish report claimed that the rate of lung cancer in nonsmoking people as well as smokers was increased due to an increase in levels of radon in their homes. However the Canadian report found no link between lung cancer and radon levels. The United States study found small evidence of increasing lung cancer of nonsmoking women with increasing radon levels. In the United States the “radon problem” is given the most attention. There are programs that test the air for radon. If there is radon in the air, the home owner can change the air circulation to reduce the levels, resulting in reducing the risk of lung cancer. But people who do live in a house with high levels of radon will only be there for a few years and will mostly spend their life in a low radon house. This is true because only 7% of houses have high levels. The United States Research Council came up with the conclusion that out of about 22,000 lung cancer deaths per year only 14% of those were associated with the exposure to radon indoors. And 90% of these victims were smokers. This percentage is so high because radon and cigarette smoke are what cause the disease. In the end, the exposure to radon accounted for one quarter of the lung cancer deaths in nonsmokers.
I think everyone should have their household tested for radon. If it can prevent lung cancer, then why not have it done. These programs should be done especially if you live in a house where there are smokers or cigarette smoke. Even if you don’t end up with radon in the air, you are better off safe than sorry.

Baird, Colin. Chemistry in Your Life: Second Edition. “Is radon dangerous to our health?” W.H. Freeman and Company. New York. 2006. Page 631

Nuclear Waste; posted for Stacey Burke

Stacey Burke
November 26th 2007

Nuclear energy is a great source of energy and electricity. However, the problem is trying to dispose of the waste after it has been used. Spent fuel rods are stored above ground in swimming pool type places under cooled water. They are kept there for several years or even decades waiting until the level of radioactivity has decreased and the rods have been substantially cooled. After this occurs, the rods can be put into giant concrete containers but, if the rods are reprocessed to remove the plutonium, the remaining highly radioactive waste becomes resolidified. One possibility is to mix it with other radioactive waste until it turns into glass then burry it far underground in metal containers. Another possible solution is to convert it to plutonium dioxide and mix it with uranium oxide to make mixed oxide fuel and then use it in existing nuclear plants. An idea is to bury radioactive waste deep underground in metal containers that will last for hundreds of years before leaking and when they do, the radioactivity will not be very high at all. Some governments do not like the idea of permanent burial because they want to be able to dig it up to retrieve the plutonium if they ever need it for nuclear power.

Fuel rods- start as uranium based rods and are made into plutonium based rods then used subsequently in power reactors.

I have always heard a little bit about the nuclear waste situation but I really didn’t understand that it was a serious ongoing project. There is really no ay for anyone to get rid of or dispose of nuclear waste. If you put it in the ground in may contaminate the water supply or the biosphere. If it is above ground not being controlled, it even more dangerous contaminating the air. There is no solution, or at least any long time solutions for the disposal. I have never heard of anyone using the idea of mixing a little bit of radioactive waste with more of it to make it into glass in order to burry it deep in the ground in metal containers. I have also never heard of fuel rods or the fact that they are stored in a pool like area for years or even decades in order to reduce radioactivity and to cool them. This is a very interesting topic and truly an aspect of life to look at in hopes someone will find a way to dispose of the waste without harming society in the end.

Baird, Colin. Chemistry in Your Life. W.H. Freeman and Company: New York, 2006;
pg. 638-640

Radiation detection an arduous task at ports

Radiation monitoring equipment scans every container that enters the U.S for any traces of radioactivity. This process has been going on for about a year now, with about 500 alarms going off in one day at the Long Beach Port, many of which are false. A driver who was bringing a container in for inspection was the cause of the false alarm, because the scanners detected radiation that Francisco Villalpando (truck driver) had received ten days earlier. Detections are not one hundred percent reliable: Plutonium and highly enriched uranium have low levels of radiation, therefore shielding material, such as lead may mislead the scanners or be unable to be detected at all. Also, normal cargo, like granite counter tops and ceramic vases puts out gamma radiation. Many representatives also believe that this form of inspection is somewhat a distraction from many other problems that cross borders: "If we can't catch people and drugs coming across our border, I have no confidence that we can create a seamless security perimeter for nuclear weapons" (Holgate 1).
Although radiation monitoring is quite costly, it is obviously not completely reliable. I believe that having detectors at cross borders are crucial and necessary but at the same time it rises the question of whether or not we are concerned about smugglers that cross borders into America.

Vartabedian, Ralph. “Radiation detection an arduous task at ports.” Los Angeles Times: Science 25 Nov. 2007. 26 Nov. 2007
http://www.latimes.com/news/science/la-na-detectors25nov25,1,4533702.story?coll=la-news-science&ctrack=1&cset=true

The recycling of plastic is a controversial issue

The recycling of plastic is a controversial issue

There are numerous ongoing controversies concerning the recycling of used plastics. One would think that it would be beneficial as well as more environmentally friendly. But in reality, it is inconvenient to reuse plastics because not only is it extremely difficult to convert used plastics to their original monomers for use, but also it is costly. Along with the cost, there are toxic byproducts produced by this process which are harmful. Also, it is not energy efficient to reuse plastics. The alternative to reusing the plastics is to dispose of them by burning them or by burying them underground. The problems with both of these alternatives is that with burning them produces toxins such as hydrogen chloride which is very soluble in water and are very corrosive not only on metals but also on membranes such as ones in the lungs. So companies are faced with the decision of whether or not to burn their plastics or to recycle them. [1]

I believe it is very important that we as a society try to minimize our usage of natural resources and try to recycle our materials as much as possible to preserve the environment. This is tricky however because the pros and cons almost cancel each other for incinerating the used plastics as do the pros and cons of reusing the plastics, I think it would be good to do a combination of both, in other words incinerate some because its cost effective but at the same time recycle some because burning them does pollute the environment. But as with any environmental issue, there is really no completely correct method yet devised.

[1] Baird, Colin. “The recycling of plastic is a controversial issue
” Chemistry in Your Life. W.H. Freeman and company. New York 2006. P. 190-191

The Art of Snowboarding

Ever wondered how Snowboards are made or what they are made of? Snowboards are constructed of a hardwood core and laminated with Glass-reinforced plastic fiberglass. The nose or "front" of the board is upturned, to help the board glide over uneven snow; the tail or "back" of the board is also upturned to enable switch or "backwards" riding. The base (the side of the board that touches the snow) is covered with a plastic called p-tex, which is typically sintered to help it absorb wax, which helps it slide faster. The edges of the base are fitted with a steel edge, just a couple of millimeters square, which helps the board grab the snow when turning. The top of the board typically sports graphics designed by board makers to attract riders to their boards or to display artwork. Flite Snowboards, an early and often under quoted designer, pressed the first closed-molded boards from a garage in Newport Rhode Island, in the mid-80's, well before Burton did it. Snowboard top sheet graphics can be a highly personal statement and many riders spend many hours customizing the look of their boards. The base of the board may also feature graphics, often designed to make the manufacturer recognizable in photos.

Unknowns
P-Tex: A low maintenance base, it is the least expensive and easy to repair.

Snowboarding, as well as many other extreme sports has revolutionized the world as we know it. It has created hobbies for millions and not only that, but professions. Who would have thought that the first snowboards were made in the garages of individuals? There is more to riding and the building of a snowboard than people think. There are different types of chemistry and builds that influence snowboarding such as the fiberglass, lament and wood. The combination of all these materials and the right amount of chemistry equals the perfection of snowboarding. I am actually going snowboarding tomorrow and look forward to experiencing the chemistry first hand. I look forward to the write up of my experience this year.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowboard (Viewed November 26, 2007)

Don’t Judge A Book by its Cover – Brown Waters are More Natural

Don’t Judge A Book by its Cover – Brown Waters are More Natural

In the last 20 years, lakes and rivers in the UK, and North America have turned brown. This is a result of carbon from dissolved organic matter. But researchers from UCL (University College London) and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency have concluded that this is actually a good change. They say this change points to the water becoming more natural; moving to a pre-industrial state with less acid rain. People have offered hypotheses to this problem including everything from global warming to changing land use. But the EPA says their findings show, that the major contributor to these changes is the decrease in acid rain. [1]

I was unaware that lakes and rivers were turning brown. It does make sense though that a decrease in acid rain would allow more organisms to thrive and decay into these water supplies. I must admit, if I saw a body of brown water, I don’t think I’d jump to the conclusion that ‘hey, that must mean its getting better!” I think we can all agree it is good to hear that some bodies of water are starting to return to a more natural state.

[1] http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/11/071121144957.htm. (viewed November 26, 2007).

Solar Energy for Power

Tim Hoesterey
FYS Chemistry and Your Future
Solar Energy is used to Generate Power

Today more and more people are becoming concerned with carbon dioxide emissions and pollution from burning coal or fossil fuels. So, many people are searching for alternative methods for producing energy. One method that is becoming more common is utilizing the sun’s energy, or solar energy. The sun produces many forms of energy directly and indirectly and some of the methods for using it include: hydroelectric power, wind power, biomass energy, and tidal and wave power. There is a lot of potential energy in solar power, but the percentage of energy generated from it is very small, but increasing. However, some forms of solar energy are not as “green” as they seem at first. Some of the methods still emit carbon dioxide and other pollutants.

Potential Energy: energy that is waiting to be released.

Hydroelectric Power: the potential energy of evaporated water that can be used to generate power by turning turbines.

One reason that I find solar energy interesting is because I grew up near the Palm Springs windmills. I’ve driven by them hundreds of times. Also, I’ve always thought that solar panels are one of the best alternative fuels. I feel that once solar panels become cheaper more people will use them and that they will become a common thing.

Chemistry in Your Life: Second Edition. By: Colin Baird. Pg. 644-648

Radiation Detection

The article is mainly about nuclear weapon detectors being falsely set off at border crossings into the country. The U.S. government is trying to firmly avoid terrorists bringing nuclear weapons into the country through one of its border entries. To do so they’re using radiation-detecting scanners at border crossings meant to detect any nuclear weapons. However the scanners are also detecting radioactive waves from other sources. For example, Francisco Villalpando was stopped by border patrol when the scanners picked up radioactivity from his truck. It was later determined that the radioactivity was coming from him, not his truck, because he had just received medical radiation 10 days prior. A variety of other things have also set off these scanners, and border patrol agents are finding it quite tasking to deal with.
Laura Holgate, a former Defense Department and Energy Department nuclear weapons expert, has little faith in the effectiveness of this plan. She feels if border patrol isn’t stopping people and drugs coming across the border, they have little chance stopping nuclear weapons too.
I think the idea of tightening up security at any possible entrance for nuclear weapons is worthwhile, but at the same time I’m skeptical about how effective these scanners will be.


Works Cited:

Vartabedian, Ralph. “Radiation detection an arduous task at ports.” Los Angeles Times 25 Nov. 2007. Science. 26 Nov. 2007 http://www.latimes.com/news/science/la-na-detectors25nov25,1,4533702.story?coll=la-news-science&ctrack=1&cset=true.

Marion Jones Drug Scandal

On October 5, 2007, track star Marion Jones admitted to the use of performance-enhancing drugs to federal investigators, claiming her use spanned back to 1999. Marion Jones won five Olympic medals in track and field, three of which were gold, at the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games. She also holds numerous records in track events. The International Olympic Committee is now revoking the medals. According to Jones, in 1999 her coach Trevor Graham gave her a substance to take daily which he claimed was flaxseed oil, and told her not to tell anyone that she was taking it. It turned out the substance was not flaxseed oil, but tetrahydrogestrinone, a substance nicknamed “the clear.” In 2003, Jones’ was interviewed by federal investigators regarding tetrahydrogestrinone. Jones’ was shown what tetrahydrogestrinone looked like, and realized that this substance was the flaxseed oil that her coach had given her four years earlier. Jones’ claims it was not until that point that she realized she was taking performance-enhancing drugs, yet did not confess to the feds that she had taken the drug. It wasn’t until recently, when federal prosecutors investigated Jones’ of writing a fraudulent check, that Jones’ confessed to her actions. Jones’ may face up to six-month sentence. Since her confession, Jones’ has written letters of apology to her family and friends.

Unknown Terms: tetrahydrogestrinone

Tetrahydrogestrinone, also known as THG and “The Clear” was a drug made by the northern California BALCO company. It is a steroid that was (at the time of development) undetectable in drug tests.

I think it’s unfortunate that Marion Jones, who was once hailed a great athlete, took performance-enhancing drugs. Now she will have no endorsements, which were probably the main source of her income, and no sport to train in (since she announced retirement after admitting to steroid use). I find it hard to believe that she had no idea that she was taking a performance-enhancing drug, thinking it was flaxseed oil. The red flag to me is that her coach told her not to tell anyone that she was taking it. I also read that her coach has been indicted, which I think is fair, and I think his punishment should be the same if not more if found guilty.

Lance Pugmire. Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles, Calif.: Oct 6, 2007. pg. D.1

Cigarette Taxes Increase Nicotine Intake

Taylor Atchison
Chemistry and Your Future
November 26, 2007
Blog #10
Cigarette Taxes Increase Smoking
This article talks about the taxation of cigarettes. It points out that there are two reasons for taxation. The first is to increase revenue and the second is to increase the health of the people. Interestingly enough the increase of tax only affects the daily consumption of young smokers ages 18-24. The older smokers consume just as many cigarettes. As well, ironically, the amount of tar and nicotine consumption increases as the taxes go up. When cigarettes are more expensive – smokers buy brands with high levels of tar and nicotine to fulfill their intake with fewer cigarettes.
I find this article very informational. One would not think of this correlation but according to statistics it is clear that if one is a smoker – taxes will not stop them from getting their nicotine. It is not the quantity of cigarettes one smokes, it is now the quality. This gives rise to the question of whether we should remain increasing taxes or not. It clearly does not achieve one of the two goals put forth by the government’s intentions. All the taxes do is increase the profit, which will subsequently increase the brands, types, and even technologies of the cigarettes. The good thing that does come from taxes put forth by state and local governments is it takes the money and puts it to a good cause. An example is Portland Oregon. They are trying to pass a bill, which will raise cigarettes 84 cents per pack. Those 84 cents will go to healthcare for children in need. Good things can come from this but it is important that we not interfere with the rights of those who smoke by making it ridiculous.

Farrelly, Matthew. “The compensation behavior of smokers, Taxes, Tar, and Nicotine.” 1998. Rand Corporation. 16, Nov. 2007.

Uranium mining and the enviorment

Uranium mining: bad for the environment.

Uranium is an unstable element on its own. This is why in nature its found as a compound mixture containing many other radioactive elements. When people mine for uranium they must separate the uranium from the rest of these useless chemicals. This procedure produces a lot of waste material. This waste material itself is radioactive. This waste comes in two forms, both liquid and solid, they are called tailings. The solid tailings deposit themselves into the bottom of the sludge while the liquid produces a kind of radioactive lake. The radioactive lake is eventually packaged into barrels or it leaks into the enviorment, contaminating water supplies and other bodies of water. The solid tailings are eventually built over and cause a contamination of water in the building its under. So in the end it all comes back to if the waste was disposed of better, the contamination of water supplies would lessen.

There where no words that I didn’t understand. This was a fairly simple article.

Personally I feel that there is no real need to mine for uranium in the first place. Its used to produce energy at a great cost to the environment. If not used to produce energy its harvested for weapon purposes. So either way if humanity stopped mining for it, we wouldn’t really be at much of a loss in my opinion.

Baird C. Chemistry in your life “17.11 Uranium mining contaminates the environment” Pg’s 637-638. W.H. Freeman and Company: New York, NY, 2006.

Radiation Detection

Nuclear bombs linked to terrorists is a serious problem that the United States has been trying to deal with for many years, especailly after 9/11, so the Department of Homeland Security and the government are trying to come up with a system to crack down on radiation activity by using scanning monitors. The problem with this system is that the scanners are set up along eight major ports worldwide along with 450 border-crossings, but they are set off very easily. Innocent contraband such as granite countertops and vasses trigger the radiation alarms causing much hostility for some government officials including Laura Holgate, a former Defense Department official. She believes that if the government has trouble stopping drug trafficing, it would be very hard to limit nuclear weapons, especially if some of the chemicals like plutonium give off very low levels of radiaiton and therefore passing the scanners. With Bush and Chenny supporting the scanner system and ultimately wanting to expand the network of these radiation systems along major coasts, ports, freeways, and even in police vehicles, while other government officials have little confidence in the system, there is going to much contrversey as time progresses. A resolution is bound to arrive at some point, but who knows when a reliable source of protection against terrorism will be set in place.

I believe that Bush is making the right decision to support a system that can protect the United States against nuclear weapon terrorism, but I also believe Laura Holgate is logical when she had little confidence in the current scanner situation. The scanners are too sensitive and there are too many chemicals that give out low radiation levels. Tthere has to be a new system formulated globally to ensure the safety of Americans on their home turf.

http://www.latimes.com/news/science/la-na-detectors25nov25,1,4533702.story?coll=la-news-science&ctrack=1&cset=true

“Proteins and DNA are used as Evidence as Legal Proceedings”

In the past, fingerprints were used for protecting the immigration laws worldwide; to track down those living in countries they illegally belonged to. However, after several years, two scientists from England, United Kingdom discovered fingerprinting to be of a better use. The fingerprints eventually used to identify or exonerate suspects in criminal investigations. Criminal investigators also use DNA and protein profiles to catch their criminals. Although fingerprints can be used, they are very unique to discover, causing them to be rarely perfect and not always available as many criminals use gloves to avoid leaving their fingerprints.
Another method used to track criminals is using ones’ blood. This is because each individual has one of the four types of blood available, group O, A, B or AB. So, if someone’s blood is found, the investigators can narrow down the suspects as only a certain percent of people have the particular blood group. For example in the United States of America only, 42% have the blood type A, 12% have the blood type B 43% have the blood type O and only 3% have the blood type AB.1 As a result, the disadvantage of this method is that they do not narrow down the results to an individual suspect, it just connects several people to the crime, whether they are guilty or not. The other method of using protein profiles to track down criminals is based on the presence or absence of certain cell membrane proteins. However, it has the same disadvantages regarding to blood samples. It only narrows down the results to several people rather than giving the results of one individual suspect. Although the protein profiles and blood are generally found to be useful and helpful to analyze, especially as only small amounts are needed, they degrade very quickly and, consequently, can only be used when the DNA or protein profiles are found fresh as it gives accurate results.
DNA can be extracted from very small biological samples such as from hair, blood, semen, saliva residues on envelopes and cigarette butts and also from cells from fingernail scrapings. These DNA samples and results can be used to compare the results of the suspects and compare the similarities and differences of the results. This allows an investigator to exempt individuals who are innocent and allow them to analyze suspects whose results have a similar DNA to the ones they found. This can be done because each individual (apart from identical twins) have their own distinctive set of DNA, enabling the forensic science department to be extremely certain about the concluded results.
When the DNA is collected from the crime scene, the DNA is copied, using a technique called a polymerase chain reaction. A large fraction of DNA contains sequences of bases that are repeated over and over again, up to 30 times in a row, which have no known function. The lengths of most of these repetitive segments vary significantly between individuals which allow forensic scientists to distinguish one individual from another. 1 The long strands of DNA are cut into pieces with the help of restriction enzymes. The fragments are sorted out by length using electrical charges. Further treatment and transfer of the separated fragments to a nylon membrane produces a series of bands called a DNA fingerprint that is unique to each individual. This allows criminal investigators to directly compare two or more individuals DNA to see if they match or not.
Although the DNA found in the nucleus of cells are commonly used, the DNA found outside the nucleus, the mitochondrial DNA, is also used and has been said to be more beneficial than regular DNA. Mitochondria DNA can be found in ones’ hair or bones in dead remains. It is more beneficial because the DNA is derived from the mother alone which has a high rate of mutation than nuclear DNA. Therefore, it is useful in discovering the evolutional history of individual species.
One of the controversial issues within forensic science is whether the forensic or criminal department should be able to force criminals to submit samples of the DNA for testing and also to keep for records. Should they be able to keep your genetic information even if they do not use it?
I think that it is very clever how they use DNA to track down criminals. Not only that but they can extract the DNA from very small samples, including hair. Technology nowadays is becoming very advance allowing investigators to find their job very easy to catch the criminals.


Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) – a polymer of nucleotide subunits in which the sugar is deoxyribose.

Protein – polyamides formed from α-amino acids, which are the most important constituent of living things.

Polymerase Chain Reaction – a process that copies a small segment of DNA, millions of times, to obtain a sample large enough for analysis.

Restriction enzymes – special molecules that seek out specific base sequence on DNA.

Mitochondria DNA – DNA found outside the nucleus.



1 Braid. Chemistry in Your Life. 2nd ed. New York, USA: W.H.Freeman and Company; 2006. pp 358-360.

Sodium and potassium ions are important to your health.

Sodium and potassium ions are important to your health.

As part of a healthy diet, it is important that one ingests sodium and potassium. As two of the most important cations sodium and potassium maintain the heart rate by keeping their concentration ratio at 5:3 (potassium: sodium). It is equally important that there is not excess of the ions because this can result in high blood pressure because the kidneys require high pressure in order to push out the excess ions from the blood. The average American however, doesn’t have to worry much about deficiencies in either of these ions; it is over ingesting them that is the issue. Interestingly the ions have specific sites within and outside of the cells where the bind in order to be transported between membranes. This is similar to the way that many antibiotics work. Potassium can be found abundantly in bananas, apples, citrus fruits, broccoli, beans, peas, bran cereals, meat and fish. Similarly sodium can be found in processed meats, and canned soups and vegetables, it is also often added to products to add flavor and acts as a preservative. [1]
Since most of my research has been on hazardous materials in products I thought it would be interesting to read up about chemicals that are good for you. I personally eat a lot of salt on my food and so it is good to know that too much can cause high blood pressure. And high blood pressure is one of the world’s leading causes of death.
[1] Baird, Colin. “sodium and potassium ions are important for your health” Chemistry in Your Life. W.H. Freeman and company. New York 2006. P. 111-112

Can Environmental Estrogens Affect Health?

Can Environmental Estrogens Affect Health?
One of the most famous examples of an environmental estrogen is the leakage of DDT into Lake Apopaka in Florida. As a result, the alligators that live in the lake displayed such effects as very few low survival rates and hatch rates. The few alligators that survived showed abnormal reproductive systems thus disabling their reproductive abilities. Furthermore the ratio estrogen to testosterone was increased. The most alarming effect of the environmental estrogens was that the compounds were transferred from the mother to the fetus they disrupt the hormone balances in the fetus. Consequently, this caused reproductive abnormalities, and even cancer that developed later in the child’s life. In humans however, estrogens mainly impacted the daughters of mothers who took a synthetic estrogen (DES to prevent miscarriages). Few of the daughters were sterile and others developed vaginal cancer. Also, the girls tended to reach puberty a year before normal. The sons of those women showed decreased sperm counts and abnormalities in their sexual organs and are more prone to testicular cancer. On the other hand, there are some estrogens that we ingest daily which seem to have no negative effects on the body at all; in fact they actually prevent cancer in some cases. These natural sources of estrogen include soy, broccoli, wheat, apples, and cherries. [1]
Although I don’t believe that environmental estrogens are that much of a thing to be worried over, still as a woman, and a potential child bearer, it is important to know that taking synthetic estrogens can cause my children have abnormal reproductive systems, and even cancers. Also, I’m not entirely surprised that taking synthetic estrogens has negative effects, because it’s sort of against the laws of nature seeing as they are synthetic, but the severity of the estrogens was surprising. I think this article ties in to some extent with the issue of pollution and preserving the environment. In the beginning of the article, Baird mentions the DDT leakages in the lake, and the devastating effects of that on the alligators. Those types of disturbances in the food webs can severely affect the globe, in that the biosphere is a fragile and complex net or system whereby a small disturbance can affect the whole rest of the biosphere. This is relevant to the current issue of global warming since people don’t think much about the dying off of polar bears, when really that’s a serious issue. If polar bears die off, then the food chain will be disturbed. The things that prey on the polar bears will die off, and the animals that the polar bears feed on will thrive. So relating this to the environmental estrogens, I think it is CURTIAL that the environment remains as natural as possible and when leakages do occur, that they are cleaned up, and that everyone should help in preserving and reconstructing the environment.

There was nothing that I didn’t understand.

[1] Baird, Colin. “10.21 Can environmental estrogens affect health?” Chemistry in Your Life. W.H. Freeman and company. New York 2006. P. 405-406.

Ozone affects crops

Ground-level ozone can affect some crops because it attacks plants by reacting with the ethene gas emitted by the plants. That reaction generates substances that can then damage plant tissues. These damaging substances slow the rate of photosynthesis which lowers the total number of plants grown. $3 Billion is lost on the ozone killing alfalfa in the U.S. and white beans in Canada annually. Elevated levels of ozone can also harden rubber, bleach colors, and have negative effects on human health.

Terms: photochemical smog


Baird, C. Chemistry In Your Life: Second Edition. "Ozone affects crops." W. H. Freeman and Co. New York. 2006. (522-523).

The Evolution of Performance Enhancing Drugs

The use of performance enhancing drugs has been prevalent since the early modern Olympic Games. The range of drugs during the early period of use included “strychnine, heroin, cocaine, and morphine.” However they’re effects among the athletes who used them resulted in many fatalities. During World War II, the use of amphetamines became prevalent and common among soldiers to help curve the pain from muscle fatigue and improve performance. Many athletes began to discover its performance “benefits” and the use of amphetamines became the common performance enhancing drugs in sports. As time past, the athletes who began to depend on amphetamines to complete workouts became overexerted. Without the pain of muscle fatigue telling the body to stop, athletes on amphetamines would suffer from heatstroke, and overexertion which sometimes resulted in death.
Soon came the introduction of anabolic steroids, which is a growth hormone that promotes muscle growth. Anabolic agents have been used in a range of sports including swimming and track & field. The use of such agents can significantly reduce racing time. Overall, it seems that performance enhancing drug users have an unnatural advantage.

Unknown terms: amphetamines

· Amphetamines are prescription stimulants

I think what makes someone a true athlete is someone with the mental strength to cope with the pain of training in a sport. I also think that drugs should be used in aiding those who are disabled, not those who are in top physical shape and are looking for an extra edge on opponents.

Timothy D Noakes. The New England Journal of Medicine. Boston: Aug 26, 2004. Vol. 351, Iss. 9; pg. 847, 3 pgs

Hydrogen Fuel Cells

Just a few years ago, hydrogen fuel cells were portrayed as the wave of the future. President George W. Bush created a billion dollar initiative to have fuel cell powered cars replace gasoline powered cars, but, four years later, few people have even seen a hydrogen fuel cell car.
Hydrogen fuel cells work through producing electricity by combining hydrogen and oxygen. They are similar to batteries, except that they consume their reactants, which batteries do not. The only product of the reaction, besides energy, is pure water. Hydrogen is necessary in order to power a fuel cell, which is one of the major problems with the proliferation of fuel cell technology. There is no infrastructure for hydrogen fuel cells like there is for gasoline powered engines, which, according to Michael Schirber of livescience.com, has created a “chicken and egg” problem. There are few hydrogen fuel stations that have been built so far, mostly in places such as southern California and New York, compared with over 170,000 gasoline stations nationwide. Consumers will not by hydrogen fuel cell cars when there is now way to fuel them, especially not when they have the option of buying the far more feasible gas powered car. However, the number of hydrogen fuel stations will not increase if there are so few hydrogen fuel cell cars on the road (www.livescience.com).
Are hydrogen fuel cells the right path to take? It could be many years until fuel cells are developed enough to be feasible for mass production, and even then it will be difficult to create an infrastructure for them. According to some estimates, hydrogen stations “might not be profitable for the first 10 to 20 years” (www.livescience.com). On top of that, hydrogen fuel cells are not truly as good for the environment as car companies would have consumers believe. It is true that the fuel cells themselves produce no green house gases, but the production of the hydrogen fuel itself is done through the combustion of natural gas, which produces just as much green house gas per mile as a car running with an internal combustion engine would. A pound of hydrogen fuel (equivalent to a gallon of gasoline) would cost around $2-3, meaning that consumers would not save a great deal on fuel, but would have to spend a great deal more on a car. So not only is the hydrogen fuel cell economically infeasible, it is not helpful to the environment and does not make sense logistically.

Bibliography

“Whatever Happened to Fuel Cells?” Livescience 5 Nov. 2007
.

Death

Your choices in life are very important, especially when it comes to your health. Early deaths are will always be hard to deal with no matter what age. Infants and children can die from birth defects, sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), pregnancy complications and rare childhood cancers. In adolescence, the leading causes of death are accidents, suicide and murder. During one’s midlife, cancer poses a serious threat. Most people in their fifties and sixties have usually heard the news that a friend or even relative their age has died from cancer and heart disease. Family history has a lot to do with these diseases too. Other causes that contribute to an early death are obesity, poor nutrition habits, smoking, lack or exercise and excessive drinking. On a positive note, good lifestyle habits, cancer screening test, and cholesterol and blood pressure lowering drugs can aide prevention of an early death.
In my opinion, people should be more aware of their health. Not everyone is perfectly healthy, so they need to take care of themselves before it is too late. You might not be able to completely assure yourself that you won’t get cancer or heart disease or any other illness, but why take the risk. If there are things to do to promote your health, then you should take these steps. Even though you may not want to do some of the preventative measures, they will benefit you in the future.

Brink, Susan. “Genes get you so far” Los Angeles Times. Health.

Chemistry of Drugs

Drugs are present in almost every sport or activity that involves any type of competition. The most common types of drugs are ones that build strength and muscle. The popular drugs used in society increase the amount of testosterone produced. The common drugs associated with banned substances are: Oxymetholone, Stanzolol, DHEA, Clostebol, Dihydrotestosterone, and Clenbuterol. Athletes are looking for anyway to get an edge on opponents and be successful in competition. The enhancement drugs essential simulate testosterone in the body, thus stimulating muscle and bone cells. Steroids have a structure close to that of testosterone (the four rings of Testosterone are very similar to the four rings of commonly abused anabolic steroids). These drugs are either injected into the body or swallowed orally. Because these drugs normally decompose in the liver, major side effects include jaundice and liver damage. Some common side effects associated with steroids are: depression, severe acne, mood swings, deepening voice, and growth of facial hair. Beta-2 adrenergic agonists are like epinephrine, a drug that is secreted by sympathetic nerves. However, when it is in the bloodstream, this drug acts like an anabolic steroid, exhibiting many of the same side effects. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG) encourages the production of naturally occurring male and female sex hormones. The luteinizing hormone (LH) is a peptide hormone made in the pituitary gland. This hormone is responsible for keeping normal levels of testosterone and estrogen in men and women. The human growth hormone (HGH) is a protein hormone from the pituitary gland and regulates growth and development. Increasing amounts of HGH will cause an increase in the synthesis of proteins and bone cells. To sum everything up, all of the muscle building drugs aim at causing the body to be fooled into thinking its testosterone thus, encouraging new muscle growth. Excessive amounts of testosterone cause larger muscle or bone mass along with many other adverse effects.

The body is a unique structure, and tampering has risks. Many athletes in the world are taking enhancing drugs just to have that extra edge and “be in shape.” What they don’t understand are the lifelong problems they are causing there body to go through. By informing those that use steroids and what not may open some eyes, but there are still going to be those select few that need to have the advantage. All the steroids are doing is fooling the body, and that is definitely something that sounds harmful. Do the pros outweigh the cons?? You be the judge.

Benjamin Lee, Vincent Lee, “Muscle Building Drugs-a.k.a. Steroids,” Chemistry Of Drugs In Sports, April 11, 2004. http://mywebpages.comcast.net/drugsinsports/0.htm#Intro (Accessed November 5, 2007.)

Chemistry in the Courtroom

Tim Hoesterey
FYS Chemistry and Your Future
Chemistry in the Courtroom

Science and chemistry are making it harder for criminals to get away with crimes. In crime scenes forensic scientists are collecting things like hair follicles, blood samples, and fingerprints among others. Most of the evidence that is collected used to determine and match DNA. Forensic evidence is being used more and more as evidence in the courtroom, and is becoming a strong influence in determining a case. A chemist can take two paths if they want to be used in the courtroom. One path is to be a forensic scientist, and the other is to become a public analyst. Though scientific evidence could be wrong, if done correctly it can also greatly help investigators catch the criminals as well as convict them.

Forensic Scientist: relating to or denoting the application of scientific methods and techniques to the investigation of crime.

The main reason that I was interested in looking into the chemistry that is involved in the legal process is because this summer I had the opportunity to serve on a jury. Justice is one of the founding principles of this great country, and I feel that any method that can be taken to improve justice is beneficial. It isn’t good when someone who is guilty is let off of the hook, but it is also very sad when someone who is innocent is convicted of something that they did not do. If chemistry in the courtroom can help lessen the frequency of the two above-mentioned scenarios, then it is just another good example of the importance of chemistry in everyday life.

Citing: from the Royal Society of Chemistry
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues/2007/November/CourtroomChemistry.asp

Microbes Plus Sugars Equal New Hydrogen Fuel?

Scientists from the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) and Washington University (WU) announced a new method of making hydrogen fuel. According to Mike Cotta, head of the ARS Fermentation Biotechnology Research Unit, the ultimate goal of the research is to reduce the United States reliance on crude oil. Cotta’s team uses bacteria, yeast, or other microorganisms in new fuel cell systems. The team is searching for microbes that ‘eat’ biomass sugars (glucose, xylose, ect…) and are electrochemically active[i]. The electrons, after traveling a circuit, combine with protons in a cathode chamber, forming hydrogen, which can be burned or converted into electricity. Hydrogen is being considered as an alternate fuel source because of its relative abundance, and its capacity to store and release energy in a nonpolluting manor. The problem, is finding a way to commercially produce it from a source other then fossil fuels, which is what makes this research so important. [1]
[i] The microbes can transfer electrons without the need for chemicals called mediators.


I never knew that to mass produce commercial hydrogen, it would currently take fossil fuels to do it. I can understand how research like this is important. It is interesting to think that microorganisms may hold the key to diminishing our dependency on oil. While this is still in the research and development stage, I hope to see this or something similar soon. As a driver, I think everyone’s pocket books would agree with my sentiment.
[1] “Microbes Plus Sugar Equal New Hydrogen Fuel?”, Science Daily, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/10/071026132750.htm (accessed November 5).

Happy Cancer Patients

It has often been believed and sometimes taught that cancer patients live longer if they are happier. In other words if a person with cancer has less stress in their lives, they are more likely to live longer. This theory has been contradicted by a new study published in the journal Cancer which says that in the 1,093 patients in the study, there was not a change in the average life expectancy for those who had stress relief and those who did not. This goes against the popularly held belief that people who feel better live longer, even with an incurable disease.
The article was interesting to me for a couple of reasons. The first is that this helps patients who lose to the disease not blame themselves. James Coyne says, “People are told to have a fighting spirit, and if the disease beats them, they think it's their fault”(Gellene). This in some ways makes sense to me, but I hardly see this study as good news for cancer patients. The other interesting point about this is that it is a highly contested issue. People still do not believe this study and think mental well-being is important to physical health. One psychologist offers an idea about the results of the study saying, “If a freight train is coming, it doesn't matter how many people stand in front of it. Nothing is going to stop it” (Gellene). This just shows that in science, there are many different opinions and often times they influence the focus of studies. These studies then give perhaps the wrong impression to the general public. Luckily we don’t have to believe everything we read.

Aids Tent

A couple weeks ago a Christian organization at our school held an event regarding the Aids Crisis in Africa. I thought this experience was incredibly powerful in terms of being able to step into the lives of those who have been affected by Aids. Meaning, there were three different stories of three children on a listening tape and pictures set up for the listeners to experience a journey through their experiences of personal hardship. As you go into the tent, a person from the organization briefly summarizes what you are about to go through. Once you step in and turn on the tape recorder, you are assigned to one child who has been affected by the subject of Aids. The first person I was assigned was Steven. He was like any normal kid, who loved to play with other children and lived with his family, until the rebels captured him and forced him to train to kill others. However, once he was found, about a year later, by officers, he was put into a camp with other kids who also had experienced what he had. Yet, as he realized that many kids his age had contracted Aids, he too, helplessly wondered if he had as well. He knew that many others who had Aids were treated unkindly. After receiving his tests, he learned that he was tested negative. It was a miracle to him, because after about of year of facing situtations where there had been many cases when he could've contracted the disease, he was fortunate that he hadn't.
It was a powerful experience to briefly enter the life of Steven. I got to see an example of what his room would've looked like, and the clothes that he wore. However, the pictures were captivating. I saw a life of a child, and felt angry and helpless for him all at once during the the events of his capture into the rebel groups. Just hearing the cry of him made me wish I could've done something about it. It makes you realize that things like this continue on in Africa, and many of us today aren't aware of such events. After the tour, however, the Christian group waited at the exit and asked for your input, namely how you see the relation between Christianity and Aids. Since I am not religious, I really didn't have to say anything about religion pertaining to Aids, because I thought I was besides the point as to the actual Crisis situation.

"Aids Crisis Tent." Christian Organization. 5 November 2007. University of Redlands, California.

Metal Containing Compounds fight HIV

Metallacarboranes Show Promise as HIV Weapons
Metallacarboranes, “cage like” metallic molecules bound to carbon have shown great possibility in the battle against HIV. The molecule has been shown to fight HIV protease, which is essential to the life of the HIV virus. If these metallacarboranes can successfully fight off HIV protease, then the HIV virus cannot live, and we’d be certainly a lot closer to fighting off HIV/AIDS than we certainly are at this point in time.
According to the article, there are some side effects to these molecules, but they were not listed other than that there was a possibility of the virus developing an immunity to the metallacarboranes. However, the article also went on to say that the molecules are also very stable and can be altered to bypass any resistance that may have occurred, without any change in the behavior of the molecule itself. This is a very useful quality that not many molecules share (at least of those that would need to be altered).
Any words in this article that I didn’t know to begin with, such as metallacarboranes, were explained usually immediately after the word appeared. So while I didn’t know every word going in, I didn’t have to look anything up, either.
I thought this article was very interesting, mainly because I was unaware as to any leads as to the treatment/prevention of HIV. It seems to me that with just a little more research this could be at least something that can cause temporary relief. Since it has already been proven that it does in fact stop the process that HIV is dependent on, that shouldn’t be a problem. And with the discovery that it can be altered in order to maneuver around those viruses that have adapted and become resistant, the only problem left are those other side effects. Unfortunately the article neglects to mention what these might be. For this reason it is a little harder for me to say how reliable this might be. But I trust if it were something unavoidable, they probably would have already dismissed it. But I can’t know for sure.
WORKS CITED
UT Southwestern Medical Center. Metal Containing Compounds Show Promise as HIV Weapon. Biology-Online.org. November 2005. {17 May 20007}http://www.biology-online.org/articles/metal-containing_compounds_show_promise.html

Filling the Skies with Sulfur

A scientist named Paul Crutzen from the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, in Germany, suggests filling the stratosphere with excess sulfur, in the form of sulfate, in an attempt to stop global warming. Sulfur gas blocks the sun's rays and theoretically would have a cooling effect. His method for doing this would be to fire artillery shells filled with the element and dropping sulfur from high altitude balloons. Large natural deposits of sulfur mainly occur when volcanoes erupt, like the situation of the Philippines' Mount Pinatubo's 1991 eruption, which cooled the earth's temperature by .9 degrees Celsius. Other scientists have reached the same conclusion- that drastically altering the Earth's current natural state is the way to counteract global warming. Unfortunately, like any change, it has negative aspects as well. Too much sulfur could potentially damage the ozone layer and whiten the sky, and such a treatment would cost between twenty-five and fifty billion US dollars.

stratosphere- the upper layer of the atmosphere

Sulfur always makes me think of a rotten egg smell, so the idea of adding excess sulfur to the atmosphere seems like it would make our air smell really bad. I also thought that sulfur is a component of acid rain, so having more sulfur than usual might make acid rain happen. It seems to me that overall, the idea needs to be thought out a lot more before time, money, and the environment is irreparably committed to it.

Kate Ravilious, "Extreme Global Warming Fix: Fill The Skies With Sulfur," National Geographic Magazine, August 4, 2006. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/08/060804-global-warming.html (Accessed November 5, 2007.)

Don't Blame Testosterone for Aggression

In the article I read entitled Don't Blame Testosterone for Aggression, the point is made that people are commonly blamming high levels of testosterone for health risks. According to Maciej Tomaszewski, of the Medical University of Silesia in Zabrze, Poland, and colleagues, angry and hostile men are not suffering from out of control testosterone levels. Maciej Tomaszewski and her team conducted a study involving 993 relatively healthy men and over time came to the conclusion that the angriest men tended to be the most overweight, or at least the least healthiest of the bunch. In addition, the most hostile men tended to have the lowest levels of "good" HDL cholestorol levels. Therefore, the study conducted proved that testosterone levels do not have to be involved with aggression and health risks. It proved that angrier people tend to obtain uhealthy habits that can lead to health risks. Becoming overweight obviously heightens the probablility of obtaining heart and cardiovascular disease by a substantial amount as well as strokes and diabetes. In conclusion, this short article wanted to prove that testosterone levels were being used as scapegoats for aggressive people, while the simple fact that unhealthy habits can lead to unhealthy outcomes was overlooked.

I happen to know many people that are aggressive or hostile towards certain people and who also happen to be engaging in unhealthy habits suh as eating too much or lacking exercise. My brother was one of these people for awhile. He was very hostile for a couple of years while trying to make a name for himself in L.A. It was a struggle, and in the meantime, my brother's eating habits were very unhealthy. His cholesterol levels were horrible and his risk for heart disease jumped up. As time progressed, his tension eased and his eating returned to normal as well as his cholesterol, but that is an instance where testosterone did not matter. I think everyone needs to make sure their tension, stress, hostility, and depression should be as minimalized to ensure the mental and physical safety of the individual.

The Recycling of Plastic is a Controversial Issue

“The Recycling of Plastic is a Controversial Issue”


Plastic has become very popular in our society as it is mostly used for packaging and storage, for example, using them as grocery bags. Plastic is known to be the second most common culprit of “garbage crisis” as they were designed to be used once and then discarded. In contrast, although plastics account for less than 10% of the mass of garbage, they make up more than one-third of its energy content.
Recently, plastics have now been collected and recycled, especially by making manufactures legally responsible for recycling the plastic that they have made and used in their products. However, there has been a controversial issue about the unused, recently synthesized from fossil fuels, material used to make plastics is a low-cost material that is made relatively low-cost raw material, namely natural gas and crude oil. This, therefore, shows that the minimum amount of energy is used compared to the amount used to produce aluminum or steel from its raw materials. The cost of clean used plastic and converting it back into its monomers so it can again be polymerized is substantial compared to the current cost of oil. [1]
Many of those in the plastic industry claim that the natural way to dispose of the plastic is to simply burn them and make use of the energy created in the process, especially as everyday people burn the oil produced for vehicles, domestic furnaces, and power plants. Experiments that have been carried out conclude that a material in domestic garbage burn more cleanly, reducing the need for fossil fuels to be added. [1]
Some of the combustion processes of some plastics, such as Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), produce toxic compounds and releases’ hydrogen chloride gas, (HCL), which dissolves easily in water and is extremely corrosive when in-contact with moisture. If the hydrogen chloride gas attacks mucous membranes, which are very moist areas, it can damage the lungs when inhaled.
There are four main ways of recycling plastic. One way is to reprocessing the plastic by re-melting it or re-shaping it so that new, different products can be made from them. Another way is to depolymerize the plastic back to its component monomers by a chemical or thermal process so that it can be polymerized again to form new products. Transforming the plastics into a lower quality substance so that other products can be made is another way of recycling plastic This is done by wither heating the plastic at a high temperature or reacting the plastics with oxygen and steam to produce synthesis gas. The last way of officially recycling plastic is to burn it to obtain “energy recycling”.
Recycling plastic, in my opinion, has become a very issue in the United States and around the world. Many countries have very strict rules of disposing their garbage. In some states in the United States, people are paying a few extra cents for the plastic bottles they buy. However, if they return their bottles back to a bottle bank, they receive their money back. This encourages people to recycle, which I think is a very good idea. Also, industries have began to give each household separate garbage bins for different items. For example, in the United Kingdom, 32 sets of garbage bins are given as well as a box. One is for standard garbage and the other garbage bin is for gardening waste such as grass cuttings. The box is for recycling items such as plastics, glass bottles and paper. It shows that the procedure of recycling is beginning to work; however, some people still do not follow the directions given in recycling.


Synthesis Gas - is the name given to a gas mixture that contains varying amounts of carbon monoxide and hydrogen generated by the gasification of a carbon containing fuel to a gaseous product with a heating value. Examples include steam reforming of natural gas or liquid hydrocarbons to produce hydrogen, the gasification of coal and in some types of waste-to-energy gasification facilities. The name comes from their use as intermediates in creating synthetic natural gas (SNG)and for producing ammonia or methanol. Synthesis gas is also used as an intermediate in producing synthetic petroleum for use as a fuel or lubricant via Fischer-Tropsch synthesis and previously the Mobil methanol to gasoline process.


[1] Braid. Chemistry in Your Life. 2nd ed. New York, USA: W.H.Freeman and Company; 2006. pp 190-192.

Reusing Water Bottles May Pose Health Risk

Reused plastic bottles may seem like a simply harmless health risk, but many may be mistaken. Studies at a Calgary elementary school found bacteria in nearly one-third of reused water bottles by kids. Even washing the bottle may accelerate the breakdown of the plastic and diffuse the chemicals e through the bottle even faster. Simple disposable plastic bottles are made from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) which is harmless for the first time, but breaks down over time. The main component that appeared in nearly all the tests was DEHA which is known as a carcinogen. It also causes weight loss, liver problems, and possible reproductive problems.

Unknown Terms:
- Polyethylene terephthalate: a thermoplastic polymer of the polyester family that is used in synthetic fibers to make bottled water
-DEHA: A chemical used in some plastics

The reason that I chose this article is not because we are studying water, but because I am a frequent user of reused water bottles. The fact that I could be ingesting chemicals that could possible give me cancer is a big scare. A simply harmless way to save some money and not buy any new bottles could be potentially fatal. There has been some research done and many people use Nalgene bottles which do not breakdown and seep plastic chemicals into the water. That is why they are used in plastic dishes in chemical labs. Now that I know what the plastics can potentially do to my system really makes me think twice about reusing plastic bottles.

Osorio, Sonia. Reusing Water Bottles May Pose Health Risk. Patient Care, Mississauga. March 2003. Vol.14, Iss. 3, pp. 9

AIDS Tent = Religion?

Taylor Atchison
FYS 08
November 4, 2007
Blog #9
The AIDS tent was an interesting experience. A Christian group put it up and ran it. As you go into the tent, a person sits down and talks with you about your current knowledge on Africa and the AIDS crisis. You are then handed a headset with one of three stories attached. The girl I became was Beatrice. She is a seven-year-old girl taking care of her older sister’s son because her sister died during child birth. This is an example of a family headed household. She is dirt poor and struggles to find food and water everyday. Luckily a very kind woman working for a relief program found her and she is doing much better off.
This tent was very eye opening. Of course many already know about the AIDS crisis however it is hard to make an emotional distinction to statistics. Being able to see pictures of real people who have died from AIDS, who have AIDS, and who are at least affected by AIDS adds an entirely new depth to the situation. There was a slight catch to the AIDS tent however. At the end a few people standing around a drawing greeting you. They ask you if you would like an interpretation of the drawing and they use this interpretation to bring up Jesus. What I disliked about the tent is the religious conversations going on after you exited the tent because I felt that it took away from the central issue – AIDS.

Christian Group, “AIDS Tent.” 4 Nov. 2007. University of Redlands, California.

Cocaine in the mem-brain.

When cocaine is used, it travels directly to the brain via blood vessels. It is mainly located in the dopamine synapses. It attaches itself to both the dopamine neurotransmitters and the receptor sites on the dendrite. This result in the axon being unable to re-absorb dopamine while the dopamine is only allowed to bind to certain dendrites. After all the available dendrites are taken up the remaining dopamine neurotransmitters simply float around in the synapse. The brain itself after a while becomes accustomed to the excess dopamine and it alters its chemistry to accommodate this. It accommodates this by slowing or sometimes even stopping the production of dopamine. It is due to this that if an addict stops using or even miss a dose, they start feeling cravings or withdrawals. It is the brain being starved of dopamine.

From personal experience with my friends I can say that cocaine is a powerfull drug. Any drug after a while begins to alter the chemistry of the brain. Even presciption drugs, which is how I can relate to the withdrawls. After being prescribed pain killers for a broken bone, I simply stopped taking them and it was as if I had a bad case of the flu. If I took them again, the feelings of weariness went away.

There were no real terms that I didn’t understand due to the fact that I have previously written a blog about this and im taking intro to psychology.

The National institute on drug abuse. “Section III: Introduction to Drugs of Abuse: Cocaine, Opiates (Heroin) and Marijuana (THC)”. October 29,2007. http://www.drugabuse.gov/pubs/teaching/Teaching4.html